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Imperialism

Imperialism

Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a meansto use it in any reference to thems In the early 21st Centurhas turned its military, political, and Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel have been directly or otherwise substantially influenced is does not includeish Empire]] holdings of the time — n] and Pakistan.) As there are few other countries with such a capability, it has been said by some that U.S. military actions are partly or mostly acts of militarist imperialas groundless criticism against the U.S. whenever it takes a military action. Two unat the U.S. currently has a much larger and more sophisticated " adequately resembles past incarnations — Roman, British, German or otherwise.

Name dualism

One thing to note in some allegthe "melting" between the name -- and in many times, the sense of n and the other territories controlle including the titular nation itself. Some examples are:
- [[Ottoman Empire]] / [[de:Imperialismus ko:제국주의 ja:帝国主義 nn:[[sv:Imperialism]] [[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม

Saudi-Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan on the north, Iraq on the north and north-east, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the south and south-east, and Yemen on the south, with the Persian Gulf to its north-east and the Red Sea to its west. It is called "the land of the two holy mosques", a reference to Mecca and Medina, Islam's two holiest places.

History

The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A regional ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next one hundred and fifty years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula. The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (known internationally as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. On 8 January 1926 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jedda, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm, then known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Nejd. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil in March 1938 transformed the country economically, and has given the kingdom great legitimacy over the years. Besides Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia remains the only country in the world named after its ruling family. Many opponents of the House of Saud reject the family's legitimacy and decline to speak of the country as "Saudi Arabia".

Politics

House of Saud House of Saud The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the Saudi monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy Qur'an is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no recognized political parties or national elections. The king is often classified as an absolute monarch, but his powers are theoretically limited within the bounds of Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The state's ideology is Salafi. This flavour of Islam spreads further by funding construction of mosques and Qur'an schools around the world. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Saudi kings have gradually developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations. Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a (Islamic law). Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions. Saudi Municipal elections took place in 2005 as a first step to open the way to form political parties in the future. Saudi courts impose capital punishment and corporal punishment, including amputations of hands and feet for serious robbery, and floggings for lesser crimes such as "sexual deviance" (i.e. homosexuality) and drunkenness. The number of lashes is not clearly prescribed by law and varied according to the discretion of judges, and ranges from dozens of lashes to several thousand, usually applied over a period of weeks or months.In 2002, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticised Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under the Shari'a. The Saudi delegation responded defending "legal traditions" held since the inception of Islam in the region 1400 years ago and rejected interference in its legal system. (Source: BBC, see [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=saudi+torture&btnG=Google+Search]) Religious police enforce a modest code of dress and many institutions from schools to ministries are gender-segregated. Homosexual men and women are prosecuted (sometimes publicly) and/or executed, if they are found to be engaging in same-sex sexual activities.

Provinces

Homosexual Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces (manatiq, singular - mintaqah). #Al Bahah #Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah #Al Jawf #Al Madinah #Al Gassim #Ar Riyad #Eastern Province #'Asir #Ha'il #Jizan #Makkah #Najran #Tabuk

Geography

Tabuk The kingdom occupies eighty percent of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries with the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen are undefined, so the exact size of the country remains unknown. The Saudi government's estimate is 2,217,949 square kilometers (856,355 mi²). Other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 square kilometers (830,000 mi²) and 2,240,000 square kilometers (864,869 mi²). The climate is dry and hot. Dry desert with great extremes of temperature and the terrain is mostly uninhabited, sandy desert. In most parts of the country, vegetation is limited to weeds, xerophytic herbs and shrubs. Animals include the ibex, wildcats, baboons, wolves, and hyenas in the highlands. Small birds are found in the oases. The coastal area of the Red Sea, especially the coral reefs, have a rich marine fauna. Saudi Arabia has a coastline of 2,640 kilometers (1,640 mi). Saudi Arabia consists mostly of semi-desert and desert with oases. Almost half of the total country is uninhabitable desert with annual precipitation up to 100 millimetres (4 in) in most regions. The western regions are plateau and the east is lowland. The southwest region has mountains as high as 3000 metres (9,840 ft), and is an area is known for greenest and freshest climate in all of the country. The capital, Riyadh, which is to the center-east has an average temperature in July of 42ºC (108°F) and 14ºC (57°F) in January. In contrast, Jedda on the western coast has 31ºC (88°F) in July and 23ºC (73°F) in January. Less than 2 percent of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early 1990s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty deserts, such as the Rub' al Khali (desert), the Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands. There are no permanent rivers and lakes in Saudi Arabia.

Economy

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Also: Oil boom (1974-85) Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. Saudi Arabia is known to be in possession of 260.1 billion barrels of oil reserves as of 2003, about 24% of the world's proven total petroleum reserves. It ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum and plays a leading role in OPEC. Moreover, the proven reserves increase gradually as more oil fields are discovered, unlike most other oil-producing countries. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 40% of the GDP, and 90% of export earnings. About 35% of the GDP comes from the private sector. Saudi Arabia was a key player in the successful efforts of OPEC and other oil producing countries to raise the price of oil in 1999 to its highest level since the Gulf War by reducing production. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. The government is expected to continue calling for private sector growth to lessen the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income has fallen from $25,000 in 1980 to $8,000 in 2003, up from about $7,000 in 1999. The decline in inflation-adjusted per-capita income from 1980 to 1999 set a record, being by far the worst such decline suffered by any nation-state in history. Recently, with higher oil prices, however, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues have increased dramatically. Saudi Arabia's budget surplus has crossed $28 billion (SR110 billion) in 2005. The Tadawul (The Saudi stock market Index) (TASI) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23 percent to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14 percent from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (SR589.93 billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.‏ Saudi Arabia has officially become a WTO member in December 2005.

Forced labor

Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa seeking work. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from third world regions migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia. A minority of these immigrants are trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, begging, or involuntary servitude. Many of these involuntary workers suffer from abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.

Demographics

wage Saudi Arabia's 2003 population is estimated to be about 24.3 million, including about 6.4 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or semi-nomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. The birth rate is 29.74 births per 1,000 people. The death rate is only 2.66 deaths per 1,000 people. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometre (2,600 /mi²). Most Saudis are ethnically Arab. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Malays, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of South and South East Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of which live in compounds. According to the CIA World Fact Book, 100% of Saudi Arabias citizens are Muslims. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html#People] The exit and entry visa cards ask applicants for their religious affiliation and officially bans entry to atheists, Israelis or anyone with an official stamp from the State of Israel.

Culture

Israel]] Israel]] Israel
- Music of Saudi Arabia
- Islam in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian culture revolves almost entirely around the religion of Islam. Islam's two holiest sites, Mecca and Medina, are located in the country. Every day, five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which dot the country. The weekend consists of Thursday and Friday. Islam itself derives from the same monotheistic roots as Judaism and Christianity, and traditionally Muslims generally regarded other religions with respect Jews and Christians are considered fellow 'People of the Book'. However the public practice of Christianity, the presence of churches and open possession of Christian religious materials are outlawed in Saudi Arabia. Israelis are also banned from entering the country. Islam's holy book The Qur'an is Saudi Arabia's constitution, and Shari'ah (Islamic law) is the foundation of its legal system. See Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia One of Saudi Arabia's most compelling folk rituals is the Ardha, the country's national dance. This sword dance is based on ancient Bedouin traditions: drummers beat out a rhythm and a poet chants verses while sword-carrying men dance shoulder to shoulder. Al-sihba folk music, from the Hijaz, has its origins in Arab Andalusia, a region of medieval Spain. In Mecca, Medina and Jeddah, dance and song incorporate the sound of the al-mizmar, an oboe-like woodwind instrument. The drum also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs. Saudi Arabian dress is strongly symbolic, representing the people's ties to the land, the past, and Islam. The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering garments reflect the practicalities of life in a desert country as well as Islam's emphasis on conservative dress. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle-length shirt woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a ghutra (a large square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. However, Saudi women must wear a long cloak (abaya) and veil (niqab) when they leave the house to protect their modesty. The law does not apply to foreigners at such a high degree, but both men and women are told to dress modestly. Islam forbids the eating of pork and the drinking of alcohol, and this law is followed strictly throughout Saudi Arabia. Arabic unleavened bread, or khobz, is eaten with almost all meals. Other staples include cooked lamb, grilled chicken, felafel (deep-fried chickpea balls), shwarma (spit-cooked sliced lamb), and fuul (a paste of fava beans, garlic and lemon). Traditional coffee houses used to be ubiquitous, but are now being displaced by food-hall style cafes. Arabic tea is also a famous custom, which is used in both casual and formal meetings between friends, family and even strangers. The tea is black (without milk) and has herbal flavoring that comes in many variations. Public theatres and cinemas are prohibited, as Wahabbi tradition deems those institutions to be incompatible with Islam. However, in private compounds such as Dhahran and Ras Tanura public theaters can be found, but often are more popular for local music, arts, and theatre productions rather than the exhibition of motion pictures. Recently plans for some cinemas that will allow Arabic cartoons to be featured in cinemas for women and children were announced. The cultural heritage is celebrated at the annual Jenadriyah Cultural festival. An institution found in Saudi Arabia is the Mutaween, or religious police, also known as the Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice. There are 3,500 officers assisted by thousands of volunteers, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm] whose job it is to enforce religious doctrine (Muslim Shari'a law as defined by the Saudi government) and to root out "un-Islamic" activities. They have the power to arrest any unrelated males and females caught socializing, and to ban consumer products and media, such as games and toys, various Western musical groups, and television shows. The Mutaween recently launched a website where people can file anonymous tips about "un-Islamic" activities. On March 11, 2002 the Mutaween prevented schoolgirls from escaping from their burning school in Mecca because the girls were not wearing headscarves and abayas (black robes). Fifteen girls died and 50 were injured as a result. There was widespread public criticism, and the Saudi government and religious leaders condemned the Mutaween for their actions. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm]. Although their influence and power has declined recently, they had been the focus of a few human rights concerns.

Miscellaneous topics

- Mecca
- Medina
- Communications in Saudi Arabia
- Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
- Holidays in Saudi Arabia
- Insurgency in Saudi Arabia
- List of Arabian Houses
- List of cities in Saudi Arabia
- List of Saudi Arabian companies
- List of Saudi Arabian universities
- Military of Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Aramco
- Transportation in Saudi Arabia
- Human rights in Saudi Arabia
- Human trafficking in Saudi Arabia
- Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia
- Green Party of Saudi Arabia
- Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

Bibliography

- Baer, Robert, Sleeping With The Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude (Crown, 2003) ISBN 1400050219
- Gold, Dore, Hatred's Kingdom : How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery Publishing, Inc. 2004) ISBN 0895260611
- Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004) ISBN 0813340527
- Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0395411653
- Ménoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1842776053
- al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 052164335

References

- [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/10/international/middleeast/10saudi.html The New York Times "Asterisk Aside, First National Vote for Saudis" February 10, 2005]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4230685.stm BBC "Q&A: Saudi municipal elections"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4252305.stm BBC "Saudis' first exercise in democracy"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue"]
- [http://www.hesbah.com/disapprove.asp Hesbah.com site of Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice] Form for Saudis to anonymously report "un-Islamic" activities to the Mutaween.
- [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=8696492 "Saudi says US human trafficking criticism unfounded"]

External links

Government
- [http://www.saudinf.com Saudi Arabian Information Resource] from the Saudi Ministry of Culture and Information Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791936.stm BBC News Country Profile - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html CIA World Factbook - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2419.htm US State Department - Saudi Arabia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/ PBS Frontline - "House of Saud"] February 2005 documentary Directories
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/saudi.htm Arab Gateway - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.findouter.com/Saudi_Arabia Findouter - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/ Open Directory Project - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Saudi_Arabia/ Yahoo! - Saudi Arabia] directory category News
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=saudi_arabia Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Saudi Arabia] news headline links Other
- [http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/saudiarc.htm Saudi Arabia: Historical Demographic Data Factsheet]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabia.html Asinah - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.bbg-jed.org British Business Group, Jeddah]
- [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/fara/Fara1st02/COUNTRY/SAUDIARA.HTM#2165 U.S. Department of Justice: Foreign Agents Registration Act]
- [http://www.TourSaudiArabia.com/ A Virtual Tour of Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2004/01/07/5 Amir Butler: Leave change in Saudi Arabia to the Saudis] (Discusses the question of Saudi liberalization) Category:Arab League Category:Arabia Category:Persian Gulf states Category:Monarchies Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:Arab Gulf states zh-min-nan:Saudi Arabia ko:사우디아라비아 ms:Arab Saudi ja:サウジアラビア th:ประเทศซาอุดีอาระเบีย

Lebanon

The Republic of Lebanon or Lebanon is a small, largely mountainous country situated at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Middle East. It is bordered by Syria on the east and north, and Israel on the south, with a narrow coastline on its west. The name Lebanon derives from the Semitic word Laban, meaning the "white" peaks of the Lebanon Mountains. Its flag features the Lebanon Cedar.

Name

The country was named after Mount Lebanon; the word "lebanon" (also "Loubnan" or "Lebnan") comes from the Aramaic word laban which means "white" and refers to snow-capped mountains. An Arabic cognate of the word laban also means "yogurt".

History

Lebanon is one of the fifteen present-day countries that comprise what is considered to be the Cradle of Humanity. It is historic home of the Phoenicians, Semitic traders whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years. The region was a territory of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages was involved in the Crusades. It was then taken by the Ottoman Empire. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to France. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power among the major religious groups. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. Beirut's

Civil War (1975-1990)

Until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, noted for its wide boulevards, French-style architecture, and modernity, was called the Paris of the Middle East. Lebanon as a whole at that time was known as the Switzerland of the Middle East (Sweesra Al Shark), enjoying a similar conflict-free status title as Costa Rica in Central America and (until recently) Uruguay in South America. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees who had fled from Israel. More Palestinian refugees arrived in Lebanon after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and Black September, and by 1975, they numbered more than 300,000, led by Yassir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In the early 1970s the PLO created a "state within a state" in southern Lebanon, and full-scale civil war broke out in April 1975, leaving the nation with no effective central government. On one side were a number of mostly Maronite militias, the most important of which was the one linked to the Phalangist Party; its commander was Bachir Gemayel. The other side comprised a coalition of Palestinians, Sunni, and Druze forces. By early 1976, the war was going poorly for the Maronites, and Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun; that Baathist Syrians were fighting against Palestinian forces was and remains ironic. In the same year in 1976, the Palestinian militia committed the Damour massacre. By 1978, many of the Maronites had become convinced that the Syrians were really occupying Lebanon for reasons of their own, and by September of that year, they were openly feuding. The Syrian forces remained in Lebanon, effectively dominating its government, into the first years of the twenty-first century. Cross-border attacks from Lebanon against Israeli territory led to an Israeli invasion on March 15 1978, in what was titled the Litani River Operation. Israel withdrew its forces thirteen days later, in response to the United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 on March 19, and the establishment of an international peace-keeping force for South Lebanon, the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNIFIL). The PLO's armed forces continued to use Lebanon as a base to attack Israel with rockets and artillery, and in 1982 Israel again invaded Lebanon with the objective of evicting the PLO. Israeli forces occupied areas from the southern Lebanese border with Israel northward into areas of Beirut. It was during this invasion that the first Sabra and Shatila massacre was committed by the Phalangist militia (under the command of Elie Hobeika). Israeli plans for Lebanon suffered a severe setback on 14 September 1982, with the assassination of the Phalangist leader and President-elect Bachir Gemayel, who was regarded as secretly sympathetic to Israel. A multinational force landed in Beirut on August 20, 1982 to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon and U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. This period saw the rise of radicalism among the country's different factions, and a number of landmark terrorist attacks against American forces, including the destruction of the United States Embassy by a truck bomb and an even deadlier attack on the U.S. Marines barracks. Concurrently, in 1982 Hezbollah was created by some of the old members of Amal with other religious clerics. 1988 and 1989 were years of unprecedented chaos. The Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Amine Gemayel (who had replaced his slain brother Bachir in 1982), whose term expired on 23 September. Fifteen minutes before the expiry of his term, Gemayel appointed an interim administration headed by the army commander, General Michel Aoun. His predecessor, Selim al-Hoss, refused to accept his dismissal in Aoun's favour. Lebanon was thus left with no President, and two rival governments that feuded for power, along with more than forty private militias. The Arab League-sponsored Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 15 year war. On May 22 2000, Israel unilaterally completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 from 1978. On September 2 2004, the United Nations Security Council, recalling previous resolutions, especially 425 (1978), 520 (1982) and 1553 (July 2004), approved Resolution 1559, sponsored by the United States and France, demanding that Syria, though not mentioned by name, should withdraw its troops from Lebanon. "All foreign forces should withdraw from Lebanon" to allow for free elections. The country is recovering from the effects of the civil war, with foreign investment and tourism on the rise. Syrian forces occupied large areas of the country until April 2005 (see Cedar Revolution below), and Iran exercises heavy influence over Hezbollah forces in the Beqaa Valley and Southern Lebanon. Nevertheless, areas of Lebanon and Beirut in particular are moving toward a sense of normality and stability. Lebanese civil society enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world.

Cedar Revolution (Intifada of Independence)

Note: Although international media prefer calling it the "Cedar Revolution", Lebanese called it the Intifada of Independence On February 14, 2005, after 10 years of relative political stability, Lebanon was shaken by the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri in a car-bomb explosion. It is widely believed that Syria was responsible for the attack (though it denies any involvement), because of its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, as well as the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the extension of President Lahoud's term. After Hariri's assassination, Druze leader Walid Jumblatt alleged that a shaken Hariri had told him months before that he was personally threatened by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad during a 15-minute meeting in the Syrian capital Damascus in August 2004: "[President of Lebanon] Lahoud is me. ... If you and Chirac want me out of Lebanon, I will break Lebanon."[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/20/international/middleeast/20lebanon.html?ei=5094&en=441b692d8c0ef46a&hp=&ex=1111294800&partner=homepage&pagewanted=all&position=]. Jumblatt said "When I heard him telling us those words, I knew that it was his condemnation of death." This testimony is contained, but not confirmed, in the UN's FitzGerald Report, issued 24 March 2005. Up to this point, no person or party has been directly accused of the murder. The Report has called for a further, much more extensive international inquiry. This has been seconded by the UN Secretary General and agreed to by the Lebanese government, but with reservations about respect for Lebanese sovereignty and the participation (not supremacy) of Lebanese agencies.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4383321.stm] Hariri's rift with Assad began with the former's vehement opposition to the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment that extended pro-Syrian president Lahoud's term in office. Hariri resigned over the incident. It was reported by some sources that upon hearing purportedly leaked information from the United Nations' special investigation report that the Lebanese authorities had covered up evidence of the murder, Hariri's two sons fled Lebanon after being warned that they too were in danger of assassination. [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk/story.jsp?story=619657] However, both sons strenuously denied these claims, asserting that they were called away by business which had been on hold since their father's murder. The assassination resulted in huge anti-Syrian protests by Lebanese citizens in Beirut demanding the resignation of the pro-Syrian government. Following the examples of the Rose Revolution and Orange Revolution in 2004, the popular action was dubbed the "Cedar Revolution" by the US State Department, a name which quickly caught on among the international media. On February 28, 2005, as over 70,000 people demonstrated in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned, after the parliament named him twice to assemble the cabinet, as a part of the constitution, they remained in office temporarily in a caretaker role prior to the appointment of replacements. In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration, staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs. Hezbollah is a secondary target of Resolution 1559, which demands all Lebanese militias be disarmed; it has since been trying to rally masses to protest against foreign intervention. This demonstration was much larger than earlier anti-Syrian protests. Anti-Syrian protests have been subjected to controversy, due to extensive anti-Syrian agitation by the Hariri-owned Future TV Lebanese network and other Hariri-linked media outlets, which dwarf Hezbollah's. CNN noted some news agencies estimated the crowd at 200,000 [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/03/08/lebanon.syria/index.html], the Associated Press news agency estimated that there were nearly 500,000 pro-Syrian protestors, while the New York Times and Los Angeles Times simply estimated "hundreds of thousands". [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/08/international/middleeast/08cnd-beirut.html], [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-030805syria_wr,0,2144599.story?coll=la-home-headlines] Al-Jazeera reported a figure of 1.5 million, citing an unnamed official and the television station run Amal. Amal On March 14, one month after Hariri's assassination, approximately 800 thousand rallied in Martyrs' Square, in the largest gathering to date. Protestors of all sects (even including a number of Shiites) marched for the truth of Hariri's murder and for what they call independence from Syrian occupation. The march reiterated their will for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony. In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damages were mostly material, these acts demonstrate the danger of Lebanon relapsing into sectarian strife. After weeks of unsuccessful negotiations to form a new government, Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned the post for the third time in his political career on 13 April 2005. Two days later, Najib Mikati, a US-educated millionaire businessman and former Minister of Transportation and Public Works, was appointed as Prime Minister-designate. A moderate pro-Syrian, Mikati secured the post through the support of the Opposition, which had previously boycotted such negotiations. During the first parliamentary elections held after the Syrian withdrawal from the country in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The combinations were quite interesting as in some areas, the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and others with Amal. They were denied the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian appointed President Emile Lahoud by the unexpectedly strong showing of retired army general Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Aoun has established himself as the dominant Christian figure in the new parliament. Known previously for his strong anti-Syrian sentiment, Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Aoun's party joined forces with these two to dominate the North and the Matn district of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Joumblat joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Bekaa, and Baabda-Aley district of Mount Lebanon. After the elections, Hariri and his Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be the new Prime Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament despite the lack of representation of Gen. Aoun. On July 18, Lebanon's newly elected parliament, which is dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition, approved a motion to pardon Samir Geagea, who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Emile Lahoud the next day. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4716701.stm] On September 1, 4 current and former officials of Lebanon: Maj Gen Jamil al-Sayyad, former head of General Security, Maj Gen Ali Hajj, former chief of police, Brig Gen Raymond Azar, former military intelligence chief, and Mustafa Hamdan, Republican Guard commander are charged in the connection of assassination of Hariri.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4206530.stm] On October 21, Detlev Mehlis, lead investigator in the UN Hariri Probe released the report of the investigation. The report said that "many leads point to the direct involvement of Syrian Officials". [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4362698.stm] On the press conference Mr. Mehlis insisted that part of the names in the report "were given by a witness whose reliability required further investigation", and given information the report is becoming public he would have removed more names under the presumption of innocence. [http://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2005/051021_Mehlis_Briefing.doc.htm] [http://www.un.org/news/dh/docs/mehlisreport/pdf/report.pdf]

Withdrawal of Syrian troops

Maj. Gen. Jamil Sayyed, the top Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on Monday, 25 April, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon. On 26 April 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon. During the departure ceremonies, Gen. Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state." UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559.

Politics

Lebanon is a republic in which the three highest offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups:
- the President must be a Maronite Christian,
- the Prime Minister must be a Sunni Muslim, and
- the Speaker of the Parliament must be a Shi'a Muslim.
- the seat for the Minister of Defence must be a Druze. This arrangement is part of the "National Pact" (al Mithaq al Watani), an unwritten agreement which was established in 1943 during meetings between Lebanon's first president (a Maronite) and its first prime minister (a Sunni), although it was not formalized in the Constitution until 1990, following the Taif Agreement. The pact included a promise by the Christians not to seek French protection and to accept Lebanon's "Arab face", and a Muslim promise to recognize the independence and legitimacy of the Lebanese state in its 1920 boundaries and to renounce aspirations for union with Syria. This pact was thought at the time to be an interim compromise, necessary until Lebanon formed its own sense of a national identity. Its continued existence and the fallout from subsequent civil wars continue to dominate politics in Lebanon. The pact also stipulated that seats in the Parliament would be allocated by religion and region, in a ratio of 6 Christians to 5 Muslims, a ratio based on the 1932 census, which was taken at a time when Christians still had a slight majority. The Taif Agreement adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions, but some argue that they still do not reflect current demographics: owing to a higher Muslim birthrate and a higher rate of emigration among Christians, Muslims are now believed to have a slight majority, 59 percent of the population counting the Druze. However a majority of Lebanese living abroad are Christians. The Constitution grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years. The last parliament election was in 2000; the election due to be held in 2004 was postponed for one year. The parliament composition is based on more ethnic and religious identities rather than ideological features. The distribution of parliament seats has been modified recently. The Parliament elects the President of the republic to a six-year term. Consecutive terms for the president are forbidden. This constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad-hoc amendment twice in recent history, however, at the urging of the Syrian government. Elias Hrawi's term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure was repeated in 2004 to allow Emile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007. Pro-democracy campaigners denounced the moves. The last presidential election was in 1998. The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the Parliament. Lebanon has numerous political parties, but their role is less important than in most parliamentary systems. Most represent, in practice if not in theory, sectarian interests; many are little more than ad-hoc lists of candidates endorsed by a well-known national or local figure. Electoral tickets are often formed on a constituency-by-constituency basis by negotiation among local leaders of clans, religious groups, and political parties; these loose coalitions generally exist only for the election and rarely form cohesive blocs in the Parliament subsequently. Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels - courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s foundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Lebanon has been under Syrian domination since 1990. More information is available [http://www.LGIC.org here]. Many Lebanese are unhappy with what they see as the undue influence exerted by the Syrian government over their affairs. The pro-Syrian administration of Emile Lahoud has curbed freedom of speech, and has attempted (successfully, until recently) to ban demonstrations. Recently, after the assassination of former prime minister Rafic Hariri, international pressure on Syria was dramatically increased, demanding a complete and immediate withdrawal of its forces, including intelligence personnel, from Lebanon. On Monday February 28, 2005, the Syrian-backed government of Prime Minister Omar Karami announced its resignation, staying on in a caretaker role. However, Karami was reappointed and asked to head a national unity government on Wednesday March 9, 2005, one day after a massive demonstration expressing support for Syria. Negotiations over the formation of the national unity government have stalled, however, over the demands of some politicians for the immediate withdrawal of Syrian forces, and over the reluctance of others (such as Walid Jumblatt) to serve in a government under President Lahoud. On March 14, the anti-Syrian opposition party responded with a protest that by an Associated Press estimate by reporters on the scene put the number at much higher than the approximately 500,000 (around a million ) who attended the 8 March pro-Syrian rally, however, CNN and The Guardian estimated the crowd at only 200,000, in line with their estimates for the March 8 rally.

Administrative divisions

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohafazat, singular - mohafazah), which are further subdivided into 25 districts (Aqdya, singular - qadaa), also divided into several municipalities englobing a group of cities or villages.
- Governorates of Lebanon
- Districts of Lebanon
- Cities and Villages in Lebanon

Geography

Cities and Villages in Lebanon A Middle Eastern country, Lebanon is demarcated to the west by the Mediterranean (Coast: 225 kilometres) and to the east by the Syro-African Depression. Lebanon borders Syria for 375 kilometres to the north and to the east and Israel for 79 kilometres to the south. The border with Israel has been approved by the United Nations (see Blue Line (Lebanon)), although a small piece of land called "Shebaa Farms" located in the Golan Heights is claimed by Lebanon but occupied by Israel, who claim that it is actually Syrian land. The UN has officially declared this region not to be Lebanese territory, but Lebanese resistance occasionally launches attacks against Israeli positions within it.

Economy

Lebanon has a competitive and free market regime and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has recently adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment. The 1975-1991 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.

Demographics

The population of Lebanon comprises different ethnic groups and religions: Muslims: (Shi'ites and Sunnis), Christians (Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Greek-Catholic Melkites, Armenians, Copts) and others (including the Druze and Alawite sects). No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. It is estimated that a slight majority of the resident population is Muslim; the rest is Christian, predominantly Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Chaldeans, Copts as well as a minority of Protestants. There is a small minority of Jews, mostly living in the eastern region of Beirut. Also, a small community (less than 1%) of Kurds (also known as Mhallamis or Mardins) live in Lebanon. There are approximately 15 million people of Lebanese descent, mainly Christians, spread all over the world. While 360,000 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948, estimates of those remaining range between 160,000 and 225,000. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe from North and South America to Europe, the Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor compared with many other Middle Eastern countries.

Culture

Lebanon has been a major crossroads of civilizations for millennia, so it is perhaps unsurprising that this small country would possess an extraordinarily rich and vibrant culture. Lebanon's wide array of ethnic and religious groups contributes to the country's rich cuisine, musical and literary traditions, and festivals. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theaters, and public spaces. Lebanese society is modern, educated, and very comparable to other European societies of the Mediterranean. Despite their European resemblance, the Lebanese are proud of their Levantine heritage and have made Lebanon and in particular Beirut, the cultural center of the Arab world. Lebanon is a member state of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. This is why most Lebanese are bilingual, speaking Arabic and French; however, English has become very popular, especially among university students. The country is not only where Christianity intermingles with Islam, but Lebanon is also the Arab gateway to Europe and the European bridge to the Arab world. Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at [http://www.baalbeck.org.lb Baalbeck], [http://www.beiteddine.org Beiteddine], and [http://www.byblosfestival.org Byblos], where the elite and eclectic line-ups perform against the backdrop of some of Lebanon's most famous and spectacular historical sites.
- Lebanon football
- Music of Lebanon

Foreign relations

The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Lebanon's foreign policy has been heavily influenced by Syria, which maintained forces throughout parts of Lebanon prior to the Cedar Revolution. Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is in the process of accession to the World Trade Organization. Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of its Arab neighbors (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq). Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran. Lebanon does not have diplomatic or trade relations with Israel. In May 1983 Israel and the Christian government of Lebanon signed a de facto peace treaty that would have established bilateral ties but this treaty has been abrogated. Lebanon's official stance on relations with Israel is that relations can only happen after a comprehensive Israeli-Palestinian settlement and a return of the Golan Heights to Syria. Lebanon and Israel have one remaining boundary dispute, over a district in southern Lebanon, on the north side of the Golan Heights, called Shebaa Farms. Lebanon claims that the Shebaa farms are occupied Lebanese territory, while Israel claims they are occupied Syrian territory (and thus should be dealt with in an Israel-Syrian treaty). Lebanon would also like Israel to take back a quarter million Palestinian refugees, who have been in Lebanon for decades.

References

- [http://www.lgic.org/ Lebanon History, Politics, Photos] Introduces Lebanon to the world
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4097965.stm Beirut rises from the ruins]-Jim Muir BBC News 16 December 2004
- [http://www.destinationlebanon.com/ Destination Lebanon]
- [http://photos.eisenbach.at/voyages/lebanon/ Travel Log and Photos of Lebanon (Austrian website)]
- [http://www.rediscoverlebanon.com/ Rediscover Lebanon]
- [http://www.juancole.com/2005/03/lebanon-realignment-and-syria-it-is.html/ Informed Comment: "Lebanon Realignment and Syria" by Juan Cole]

External links

Government
- [http://www.informs.gov.lb/EN/Main/index.asp? Official Governmental site of Lebanon]
- [http://www.presidency.gov.lb/ Official Presidential site of Lebanon]
- [http://www.cas.gov.lb/ Central Administration for Statistics]
- [http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/ Ministry of Tourism] News
- [http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/318 NewsXS] aggregated news headlines and rss-feed
- [http://www.un.org/news/dh/docs/mehlisreport/ United Nations - Mehlis Report] official report of the investigation into Hariri's death
- [http://www.tahawolat.com Tahawoalt Magazine] Tahawolat Magazine General information
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/le.html CIA World Factbook - Lebanon]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Lebanon Open Directory Project - Lebanon] directory project
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2414.htm US State Department - Lebanon] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- Category:Levant Category:Arab League Category:Near Eastern countries Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries zh-min-nan:Lebanon ko:레바논 ms:Lubnan ja:レバノン simple:Lebanon th:ประเทศเลบานอน

Pakistan

:See 2005 Kashmir earthquake for the 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان, islāmī jamhūriya i pākistān), or Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان, pākistān) is a country located in South Asia that overlaps onto the Greater Middle East and Central Asia. The country borders India, Afghanistan, Iran (Persia), China and the Arabian Sea. The name of the country "Pakistan" in Urdu and Persian means Land of the Pure. With around 163 million inhabitants, it is the sixth most populous country with the second largest Muslim population. It is a member of the UN, Commonwealth of Nations, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

History

See main article for detailed information: History of Pakistan (Including pre-history, civilizations of the region, and modern events to date) Related articles: History of South Asia, History of Iran, History of India, History of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan, was center of Indus Valley Civilization, 2600 BCE – 1800 BCE]] Pakistan is the birthplace of some of the most ancient civilizations and a strategic center of historic trade routes, including the Silk Road. It exists in a region whose history has overlapped that of many empires (e.g Mughals) and also of countries including India, Afghanistan and Persia (Iran). As one of the cradles of human civilization, the Pakistani region has long been at the crossroads of history. Pakistan was the site of the Indus Valley civilization and was subsequently conquered by many groups, including Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, White Huns, and Scythians. This period saw the country advance in trade and culture to a level where the Gandhara region and the great city of Taxila (Takshashila) became a great center of learning and development.

Ancient History

Nearly all of ancient Pakistan was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty for over two hundred years beginning in 540 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated the Punjabi king Porus (Paurava) at the Hydaspes near Jhelum. After Alexander's death and brief Seleucid control, Chandragupta Maurya gained control of the territory. His grandson Ashoka is known as to have been one of the major proselytizers of Buddhism which spread in the region. After the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was overthrown in 185 BCE, 185 BCE-171 BCE), founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom]] Demetrius of Bactria conquered Gandhara and Punjab in 184 BCE, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted nearly two centuries, until around 10 BCE. To the south, this kingdom captured Sindh and extended to the coast of the Arabian Sea. One of the prominent Greco-Bactrian kings was Menander, who ruled from 155 to 130 BCE and is believed to have been a convert to Buddhism. His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa, now in Afghanistan) and extended to the Pakistani province of Punjab with diffuse tributaries to the south and east, possibly even as far as Mathura in modern India. Sagala (modern Sialkot) became his capital and propered greatly under Menander's rule. The last Greek king to rule independently was probably Strato II, whose reign ended about 10 CE. Various Greek kings ruled into the beginning of the 1st century CE, as petty rulers (such as Theodamas) and as administrators, after the area was conquered by various Central Asian groups, most notably the Tocharian Kushans. The Kushan kingdom stretched from modern-day Uzbekistan to northwestern India. The kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the western parts of the kingdom, including Gandhara, to the Parthian king Gondophares. Later invaders included the Scythians, and White Huns. While the Punjab remained under the Huns and Scythians, the Sassanian Persian Empire then came to control most of western Pakistan and parts of Sind came under the rule of Hindu rajas.

Arrival of Islam

In the eighth century CE, the arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab set the stage for the geographic boundaries of the modern state of Pakistan and formed the foundation for Islamic rule which quickly spread across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the region was controlled by the Mughals from 1526 until 1739. From 1739 until the early 19th century the entire area was ruled briefly by Nadir Shah and then by the Afghans and then later the Baluchis and Sikhs came to control Sind and the Punjab.

British rule

To the east, the British had arrived and formed the British East India Company which would eventually spearhead a colonial dominion over South Asia. The Mughal Empire was then at a decline and the eventual collapse of the anti-British struggle by the Muslim leader Tipu Sultan from 1749 to 1799 left the remnants of the Mughal Empire vulnerable. The British did not gain strong footholds in the Pakistani region until the early 19th century and annexed the entire area during the Great Game rivalry with the Russian empire. The Indian War of Independence in 1857 was the last South Asian armed struggle against the British, while the Anglo-Afghan wars continued into the 20th century. After crushing the struggle the British dubbed the event the "Sepoy Mutiny". Even though the War of Independence was a joint Muslim-Hindu struggle to oust the British, the brunt of British retaliation was directed at the Muslim population of the empire employing the infamous "Divide and rule" policy. This suppression and subjugation helped set the stage for the creation of Pakistan - an Islamic state for the Muslims of British India. The greatest proponent of this became Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later earned the title of Quaid-e-Azam (Urdu: قائد اعظم) meaning "great leader" and founder of Pakistan.

Independence and After Independence

After a 60 year formal and generally unarmed struggle for independence, Pakistan came into existence on 14th August 1947 from the British Empire. The British divided up the Indian empire into three parts: the central part, with a Hindu majority, became modern-day India, the western part along with parts of the Punjab became West Pakistan, while East Bengal (the Muslim majority part of Bengal) became East Pakistan. The Partition of India is believed by many to have been mishandled by the British since it resulted in the worst ever recorded communal riots in the region and perhaps one of the worst in modern history. An estimated 1 to 5 million Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and others in former British India lost their lives as a direct consequence and millions more became refugee migrants to the newly formed Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Due to a hasty British retreat and mishandling of the independence of its former colonies, various disputes would remain between India and Pakistan involving Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch (Sir Creek) regions. Both nations have fought three all out wars due to these unsettled issues. Other inherited legacies of British rule included the Durand Line debate regarding the border with Afghanistan. In 1971, economic and political discontent in East Pakistan – geographically separated from West Pakistan by India – and violent political repression escalated into a civil war (see Bangladesh Liberation War) in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, resulting in the secession of East Pakistan, which formed the independent state of Bangladesh. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created a large influx of refugees fleeing to Pakistan from Afghanistan; the largest in the world. In one of the largest covert operations in history, Pakistan and the United States supported anti-Soviet freedom fighters in Afghanistan, and the Soviets withdrew in the late 1980s. Politically since its formation, Pakistan has oscillated between democratic and military rule, while making some impressive recent economic strides.

Origin of the name

The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali. He devised the word and first published it on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never [http://www.zyworld.com/slam33/non.htm]. He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in South Asia. (P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Baluchistan, thus forming 'Pakstan.' An 'i' was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing Pakistan.) The word also captured in the Persian language the concepts of "Pak" meaning "Pure" and "stan" for "land" or "home" (as in the names of Central Asian countries in the region; Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, etc), thus giving it the meaning Land of the Pure. All Arabic-speaking countries refer to Pakistan as باکستان (Bakstaan), as the Arabic alphabet lacks the letter "P."

Politics

Domestic Politics

Main article: Politics of Pakistan

Form of Government

Politics of Pakistan Constitutionally a federal republic, with considerable autonomy to the four Provinces – Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, and NWFP (North West Frontier Province) (Sarhad) and the state of [http://www.ajk.gov.pk Azad Kashmir] (Azad meaning Free in Urdu). The upper house is called the Senate, which has 100 seats equally distributed among the four provinces of Pakistan, with reserved seats for women and religious minorities, who may also contest the general seats. The lower house is called the National Assembly of Pakistan and has 342 seats including reserved seats for religious and ethnic minorities and women. National Assembly elections were held in October 2002, and Senate elections in February 2003. One notable outcome was the election of 91 women to Parliament – the largest number (and the largest percentage) of women in the parliament of any Muslim-majority country, according to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union. [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm] Members of the National Assembly are elected for five-year terms. The National Assembly elects the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who then appoints selected members of the National Assembly and Senate as federal ministers in the cabinet. The Electoral College of Pakistan – consisting of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies – elects the President of Pakistan, who is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The President’s appointment and term are constitutionally independent of the Prime Minister’s term. Each province has a Provincial Assembly which is elected for five year terms through competitive multi-party elections, and which in turn elects a Chief Minister – the executive head of the province. Provinces also have governors who are appointed by the Federal Government.

Political Parties

Commander in Chief Before and during the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the secular and centrist Pakistan Muslim league supported the creation of Pakistan while the far-right religious parties such as the Shia Conference , Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Hind and leaders such as Maulana Azad opposed the creation of Pakistan and supported a united India. The liberal, leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) emerged as a major political player during the 1970s. During 80s, a new political anti-feudal movement started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh, specially Karachi, now known as MQM. Currently, the largest party in Parliament is the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) and the second largest is the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). The PML-Q obtained a plurality in the October 2002 elections. Besides these major players, there are several other political parties active in Pakistan. See also: List of political parties in Pakistan

Foreign Relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan Foreign relations of Pakistan Pakistan was an ally of the United States for much of its early history as a modern nation-state, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) and SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation). However, it all changed from 1965 when Pakistan went to war with India during the height of the Cold War. The US placed heavy military sanctions on Pakistan during the war forcing Pakistan to agree to the cease fire and pulling out of the war that was heading for a stalemate. After the 1965 war Pakistan had moved away from the US and its relations with China became stronger and soon both nations declared their alliance. Their relations have gone so far that it concerns the Western Super Powers. Despite US opposition, Pakistan dropped out of CENTO and SEATO, and established better relations with China and supported the resolution to move official recognition for the Chinese seat from the Taiwan-based Republic of China to the Beijing government. United States maintained a lukewarm relationship until the 1970s. In 1971, Pakistan was involved in a civil war which led the breaking away of East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. China supported Pakistan and did not accept the new nation of Bangladesh for over 3 years, even though in 1973 Pakistan itself had. The US also did not accept Bangladesh in favor of Pakistan until after the Shimla Accord. The Soviet involvement in the war and the Chinese influence on Pakistan prompted USA to bolster ties with a lost ally and the alliance would not be strengthened until the Afghan war. In the 1980s Pakistan was supplied by the US with necessary arms and helped in training supporting anti-Soviet militia in Afghanistan. US promised to provide Pakistan with F-16 fighter jets though only a few were eventually supplied due to the Pressler amendment. China however chose to remain out of this alliance, instead providing moral support. After the Afghan war, which ended in favor of the anti-Soviet Alliance, the relationship with the US deteriorated when sanctions were imposed on Pakistan along with India for their nuclear program. All military equipment aid was again barred. China came to Pakistan's aid and helped them establish ground force and aviation infrastructures. Prior to the US-Led coalition war in Afghanistan, China remained the main exporter and trader with Pakistan. After September 11th, 2001, and the subsequent American-led assault on Afghanistan, current Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf aligned his government again with the US and attempted to seal borders with Afghanistan and silence Islamic radicals along it (especially in the NWFP and other rural, fronteir provinces). Since this strategic re-alignment towards US policy, the economic and military aid has been flowing from the US to Pakistan in large numbers. Besides the US and China, Pakistan enjoys alliances with some Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. PAF pilots fly fighters for these two countries. Libya and Syria are the only two middle eastern countries with whom Pakistan enjoys great relations even though they were once Soviet allies. Pakistan is also an important member of the OIC, which brings it closer to every Muslim country. Besides OIC, Pakistan is a member of the South Asian union of SAARC. Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of population and its status as a declared nuclear power—the only Islamic nation—also plays into its role on the international scene.

Political History

Pakistan has been ruled by both democratic and military governments. General Ayub Khan was the president from 1958 to 1969, and General Yahya Khan from 1969 to 1971. Civilian rule continued from 1971 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, but he was deposed by General Zia-Ul-Haq. General Zia was killed in a plane crash in 1988, after which Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was the youngest woman to ever be elected the Head of Government and the first woman to be elected as the Head of Government of a Muslim country. Her government was followed by that of Nawaz Sharif, and the two leaders alternated until the military coup by General Pervez Musharraf in 1999. Since the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar in 2001, Musharraf has been the President of Pakistan. Pakistan's first decade was marred with political unrest and instability resulting in frequent collapses of civilian democratic governments. From 1947 to 1958 as many as seven Prime Ministers of Pakistan either resigned or were ousted. This political instability paved the way for Pakistan’s first military take over. On October 7th 1958 Pakistan’s civilian and first President Iskander Mirza in collaboration with General Mohammad Ayub Khan abrogated Pakistan’s constitution and declared Martial Law. Nation-wide parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, with the PML-Q winning a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, and Zafarullah Khan Jamali of that party emerging as Prime Minister. Jamali resigned on June 26, 2004. PML-Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain became interim PM, and was succeeded by Finance Minister and former Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz, who was elected Prime Minister on August 27, 2004 by a National Assembly vote of 191 to 151.

Geography

:Main article: Geography of Pakistan Geography of Pakistan Pakistan has a total area of 803,940 square kilometers, over three times the size of the United Kingdom. It has a land area of 778,720, slightly less than the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom put together. To the south is the Arabian Sea, with 1,046 km (650 mile) of Pakistani coastline. To Pakistan's east is India, which has a 2,912 km (1,809 mile) border with Pakistan. To its west is Iran, which has a 909 km (565 mile) border with Pakistan. To Pakistan's northwest lies Afghanistan, with a shared border of 2,430 km (1,510 miles.) China is towards the northeast and has a 523 km (325 mile) border with Pakistan. The northern and western areas of Pakistan are mountainous. Pakistani administered areas of Kashmir contain some of the highest mountains in the world, including the second tallest — K2 — and has areas of preserved moist temperate forest. K2]In the southeast, Pakistan's border with India passes through a flat desert, called the Cholistan or Thar Desert. West-central Balochistan has a high desert plateau, bordered by low mountain ranges. Most areas of the Punjab, and parts of Sindh, are fertile plains where agriculture is of great importance. Pakistan is also the home of some of the world's most ancient civilizations. Places like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kot Diji, Thatta, Bhambore, Gandhara, Mehrgarh, Dir are all sites that came into existance near the dawn of civilization several thousand years ago.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Pakistan

Overview

Pakistan, a developing country, is the sixth most populous in the world and has faced a number of challenges on the political and economic fronts. Although a very poor country when it became independent in 1947, in the 1960s Harvard economists proclaimed it to be a model of economic development. In each of its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average, but imprudent policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s. Since then, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves in recent years. In 2004 Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world.[http://aric.adb.org/default11.asp?handler=country&cid=36]

Macroeconomic Reform and Prospects

According to many sources, the Pakistani government has made substantial economic reforms since 2000, and medium-term prospects for job creation and poverty reduction are the best in nearly a decade. Government revenues have greatly improved in recent years, as a result of economic growth, tax reforms - with a broadening of the tax base, and more efficient tax collection as a result of self-assessment schemes and corruption controls in the Central Board of Revenue - and the privatisation of public utilities and telecomunications. Pakistan is aggressively cutting tariffs and assisting exports by improving ports, roads, electricity supplies and irrigation projects. Islamabad has raised development spending from about 2% of GDP in the 1990s to 4% in 2003, a necessary step towards reversing the broad underdevelopment of its social sector. Liberalisation in the international textile trade has already yielded benefits for Pakistan's exports, and the country also expects to profit from freer trade in agriculture. As a large country, Pakistan hopes to take advantage of significant economies of scale, and to replace China as the largest textile manufacturer as the latter China moves up the value-added chain. These industries play to Pakistan's relative strengths in low labour costs. A perception of stability in the nation's monetary policies has contributed to a reduction in money-market interest rates, and a great expansion in the quantity of credit, changing consumption and investment patterns in the nation. Pakistan's domestic natural gas production, and its significant use of CNG in automobiles, has cushioned the effect of the oil-price shock of 2004-2005. Pakistan is also moving away from the doctrine of import substitution which some developing countries (such as Iran and India) dogmatically pursued in the twentieth century. The Pakistani government is now pursuing a export-driven model of economic growth successfully implemented by South East Asia and now highly successful in China. In 2005, the World Bank reported that :"Pakistan was the top reformer in the region and the number 10 reformer globally — making it easier to start a business, reducing the cost to register property, increasing penalties for violating corporate governance rules, and replacing a requirement to license every shipment with two-year duration licenses for traders." [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20643510~menuPK:158937~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html] In addition, reduced tensions with India and the ongoing peace process raise new hopes for a prosperous and stable South Asia, with more intra-regional trade.
Growing Middle Class
Measured by purchasing power, Pakistan has a 30 million strong middle class enjoying per capita incomes more than $8000-$10,000, according to Dr. Ishrat Husain, Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan [http://www.pabe.org/us-chamber-press-article/PressArticlesOctober18_2004.doc]. In addition, Pakistan has a growing upper class with relatively high per capita incomes. However, Pakistan has no individuals with as much as a billion US dollars, according to Forbes magazine, and has the distinction of being the most populous nation to have no billionaires.
Economic History

First Five Decades
Economically, Pakistan was a very poor and predominantly agricultural country at the time of its independence in 1947 from British India. During its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average. Industrial-sector growth, including manufacturing, was also above average. In the early 1960s, Pakistan was seen as a model of economic development around the world, and there was much praise for the way its economy was progressing. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied its Second Five Year Plan, 1960-65. Not just that But World financial center in Seoul was modeled after Karachi. Later, economic mismanagement in general, and fiscally imprudent economic policies in particular, caused a large increase in the country's public debt and led to slower growth in the 1990s.
Economic Resilience
Historically, Pakistan's overall economic output (GDP) has grown every year since a 1951 recession. Despite this record of sustained growth, Pakistan's economy had, until a few years ago, been characterized as unstable and highly vulnerable to external and internal shocks. However, the economy proved to be unexpectedly resilient in the face of multiple adverse events concentrated into a four-year period —
- the Asian financial crisis;
- economic sanctions — according to Colin Powell, Pakistan was "sanctioned to the eyeballs";
- global recession;
- a severe drought — the worst in Pakistan's history, lasting four years;
- heightened perceptions of risk as a result of military tensions with India — with as many as a million troops on the border, and predictions of impending (potentially nuclear) war; and
- the post-9/11 military action in neighboring Afghanistan, with a massive influx of refugees from that country. Despite these adverse events, Pakistan's economy kept growing, and economic growth accelerated towards the end of this period. This resilience has led to a change in perceptions of the economy, with leading international institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and the ADB praising Pakistan's performance in the face of adversity.
Recent economic history and trends
Since about the turn of the century, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves as a result of its current account surplus. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2005, Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world. Its exports grew by as much as 17% and the country also saw increasing foreign investments in the IT sector, thanks to cheap labor, a low tax rate and a large pool of English speakers.
Structure of production

Stock Market
In the first three years of the current century, Pakistan's KSE-100 stock market index (Karachi Stock Exchange) was the best-performing major market index in the world, driven in part by profit growth, high dividend yields and greater transparency in publicly traded companies as a result of reforms enacted by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.
Currency
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan The basic unit of currency is the Rupee, which is divided into 100 paisas. Since the turn of the century, a strengthening economy and large current-account surplus has caused the rupee's exchange rate to rise in value. In response, Pakistan's central bank has prevented the rupee from rising too much, by lowering interest rates and buying dollars, in order to preserve the country's export competitiveness. As of 2005, one US dollar is approximately equal to 60 rupees.
Industry

Manufacturing and Finance
Pakistan's manufacturing sector has experienced double-digit growth in recent years, with large-scale manufacturing growing by 18% in 2003. A reduction in the fiscal deficit has resulted in less government borrowing in the domestic money market, lower interest rates, and an expansion in private sector lending to businesses and consumers. Foreign exchange reserves continued to reach new levels in 2003, supported by robust export growth and steady worker remittances. export
Tax Incentives & IT Industry